Water – A Comprehensive Analysis !!!

The unpaid ecosystem services of the environment (e.g., pollution assimilation) as a factor of production and the depletion and degradation of some natural resources (like air, water and soil pollution) are not accounted into the present System of National Accounts(SNA); as a result it is difficult to understand the actual ENVIRONMENTAL DEBT (“Environmental debt refers to the accumulation of past environmental impacts of natural resource depletion and environmental degradation, owed to future generations) of Indian economy. In other words, the contribution of natural resources like water (both depletion and degradation) in GDP is not accounted and hence, it could limit the potential to achieve high economic growth in the long run (by posing constraints on availability of water and/or various ecosystem services) and/or economic development (by imposing costs (public health) on society in terms of water pollution).

2. THE VULNERABILITIES OF CLIMATE CHANGE

A recent World Bank report confirms that climate change will increase water-related shocks on top of already demanding trends in water use. Estimates indicate that around 4 billion people or two-thirds of the world’s population face severe water shortage for at least one month every year Of this one fourth (1 billion people) live in India, whereas half a billion people in the world face severe water scarcity throughout the year. Of this half a billion people, 180 million people live in India.

3. INCREASING GLOBAL DEMAND

According to the UN, food output must grow by 60 per cent to feed a population of nine billion or more in 2050. Production of food requires considerable inputs of energy and water, raising challenges of conflicting demands. But by 2030, the world will have to confront a water supply shortage of 40 per cent. Agriculture already accounts for approximately 70 per cent of global freshwater withdrawals and is perceived as one of the main factors behind the increasing global scarcity of freshwater.

1. CREATION OF A ‘WATER BANK’ –

These will require detailed planning and funds, but the task is doable. India is blessed with an annual average rainfall of 1,100 mm, most of which falls in around 100 hours. This primary source of water must be captured either for direct use, or for recharge of groundwater aquifers and surface water bodies. Funds allotted for MGNREGA must be directed towards reviving and creating water conservation structures. There is a need to facilitate smooth and swift transfer of funds to the villagers which is now a Supreme Court order as well. MPLAD and other government funding can be used. Every region of India has had traditional water harvesting systems suited to the region, which must be revived at scale. These models can be tested, replicated and modified if required to suit contemporary needs.

Artificial groundwater recharge: subsurface water banks

Since the open land mass is declining, especially in urban areas, artificial recharge at scale can greatly help in alleviating water scarcity, reduce flooding and improving water quality.

Artificial groundwater recharge is the infiltration of surface water into shallow aquifers to (a) increase the quantity of water in the subsurface

(b) Improve its quality by natural attenuation processes.

It can be practiced in river valleys and sedimentary plains by infiltrating river or lake water into shallow sand and gravel layers. Water can be infiltrated into aquifers through basins, pipes, ditches and wells

Advantages

• Natural processes reduce the contamination of infiltrated river water.

• Infiltration also allows for better water management as the level of water between the river and groundwater aquifer can be manipulated during periods of low and high river water discharge. Over time, a balance is struck between the river and the aquifer, allowing for water availability throughout the year. The Palla floodwater recharge that has been initiated by the Delhi Jal Board is one such example

• Generally, artificially recharged groundwater is better protected against pollution than surface water, and the delimitation of water protection zones makes it safer.

• If done at larger scale, the volume of water that can be saved is enormous. While there are environmental, financial and social issues in constructing artificial storage spaces such as dams, recharging groundwater aquifers is a ‘natural’ choice. Artificial recharge, thus, offers a tremendous potential.

2.WATER CONSERVATION : Sectorial approaches

Agriculture

 Issues- low efficiency in water use – 38-40 per cent for canal irrigation and 60 per cent for groundwater irrigation schemes; declining water availability; increasing food demand due to population increase; changing food habits; commitments under RTF (Right to Food); and, competitive  demands over water.

a) Climate smart agriculture

b) Adopting Micro Irrigation (MI) and precision irrigation practices:  Drip and sprinkler irrigation helps in savings between 40-80 per cent of water. Irrigation methods such as irrigation scheduling, tillage, mulching and fertilisation can increase the transpiration component of evapotranspiration which results in higher utilisation of water by crops, enhancing their productivity.(Irrigation based on water / fertilizer production function curves.)

c) Land and water management practices: These include integrated practices such as soil-water conservation, adequate land preparation for crop establishment, rainwater harvesting, efficient recycling of agricultural wastewater, conservation tillage to increase water infiltration, reduce run off and improve soil moisture storage.

d) Laser leveling: This technique removes unevenness of the soil surface, having significant impact on the germination, stand and yield of crops. It can save around 20-30 per cent of water and enhance outputs by at minimum 10 per cent.

e) System of Rice Intensification (SRI):SRI is well known for reducing water requirement by around 29 per cent and the growth duration by 8-12 days and increasing the yield by about ¾ tons/Ha resulting in increased water productivity of rice. This technology is also useful for sugarcane cultivation.

f) Extension activities:Training farmers and extension officers in water management and Conducting seminars/workshops in villages to bring awareness among all farmers for safe water and to increase yield.Extension offices in water management should be created in the block level as in the case of agronomy, plant protections, etc.

Industry

Companies are eager to reduce their water footprint, get certified for their water responsive behavior and products.

Some of the options before the industry are given below.

a) Increasing water efficiency- Some of the methods that can reduce water footprint include, change in technology from water cooling to air cooling, replacing of water intensive equipment and fixtures, waste water recycling and reuse into industrial process, and rainwater harvesting and its use.

b) Life cycle analysis:Life cycle analysis can help to assess the environmental impact associated with the various stages of a product’s life right from the cradle to the grave (from raw material extraction through materials processing, manufacture, distribution, use, repair and maintenance and disposal).

For obtaining Cradle to cradle (C2C) certification, there is a need to meet special criteria for water. Water Stewardship as a part of the Cradle to Cradle certification requires actions that not only improve the water footprint in industrial processes and supply chain, but also in the ecosystem where the industry is operating. There are five levels – Basic, Bronze, Silver, Gold and Platinum, with industries meeting better water standards at each level.

c) Supply chain water management and taking responsibility- For instance, H&M in partnership with WWF has established pillars of water management which include: developing training materials that would inform the design and sourcing team about water related impacts of producing fashion and raw materials respectively; identifying possibilities of saving water at company owned facilities; working with stakeholders such as local and regional Governments, NGOs and other companies for better water management of river basins in China and Bangladesh; and, educating customers on the significance of water management.

d) Water offset- For situations where water consumption cannot be reduced through efficiency improvements, water reuse or recycling, ‘water offsets’ investments to watersheds are adopted. Adoption of water offset would typically involve planting trees or investing in efficiency measures in far off lands.

Cross country community efforts

In drought hit Bundlekhand, Parmarth, a civil society organisation is supporting resilience amongst the drought affected families through development of more than 100 drought risk reduction plans, rainwater conservation and establishing community and institutional linkages. Jal Sahelis (friends of water) are managing in-village water supply and water conservation efforts.

Under Andhra Pradesh Farmer Managed Groundwater Systems(APFAMGS) project implemented in 7 drought prone districts of AP, farmers are managing their groundwater systems and have adopted suitable agricultural options.

In 2002, drought hit Raj Samadhiyala village in Gujarat, managed to take up three crops a year using the rainwater harvested through the construction of farm ponds, percolation tanks, check dams and sub-surface structures.

Drought prone Laporiya village in Rajasthan has a unique dyke system called the ‘chauka’ to capture rainwater, improving water availability for drinking and harvest.

1. CREATION OF A ‘WATER BANK’ –

These will require detailed planning and funds, but the task is doable. India is blessed with an annual average rainfall of 1,100 mm, most of which falls in around 100 hours. This primary source of water must be captured either for direct use, or for recharge of groundwater aquifers and surface water bodies. Funds allotted for MGNREGA must be directed towards reviving and creating water conservation structures. There is a need to facilitate smooth and swift transfer of funds to the villagers which is now a Supreme Court order as well. MPLAD and other government funding can be used. Every region of India has had traditional water harvesting systems suited to the region, which must be revived at scale. These models can be tested, replicated and modified if required to suit contemporary needs.

Artificial groundwater recharge: subsurface water banks

Since the open land mass is declining, especially in urban areas, artificial recharge at scale can greatly help in alleviating water scarcity, reduce flooding and improving water quality.

Artificial groundwater recharge is the infiltration of surface water into shallow aquifers to (a) increase the quantity of water in the subsurface

(b) Improve its quality by natural attenuation processes.

It can be practiced in river valleys and sedimentary plains by infiltrating river or lake water into shallow sand and gravel layers. Water can be infiltrated into aquifers through basins, pipes, ditches and wells

Advantages

• Natural processes reduce the contamination of infiltrated river water.

• Infiltration also allows for better water management as the level of water between the river and groundwater aquifer can be manipulated during periods of low and high river water discharge. Over time, a balance is struck between the river and the aquifer, allowing for water availability throughout the year. The Palla floodwater recharge that has been initiated by the Delhi Jal Board is one such example

• Generally, artificially recharged groundwater is better protected against pollution than surface water, and the delimitation of water protection zones makes it safer.

• If done at larger scale, the volume of water that can be saved is enormous. While there are environmental, financial and social issues in constructing artificial storage spaces such as dams, recharging groundwater aquifers is a ‘natural’ choice. Artificial recharge, thus, offers a tremendous potential.

2.WATER CONSERVATION : Sectorial approaches

Agriculture

 Issues- low efficiency in water use – 38-40 per cent for canal irrigation and 60 per cent for groundwater irrigation schemes; declining water availability; increasing food demand due to population increase; changing food habits; commitments under RTF (Right to Food); and, competitive  demands over water.

a) Climate smart agriculture

b) Adopting Micro Irrigation (MI) and precision irrigation practices:  Drip and sprinkler irrigation helps in savings between 40-80 per cent of water. Irrigation methods such as irrigation scheduling, tillage, mulching and fertilisation can increase the transpiration component of evapotranspiration which results in higher utilisation of water by crops, enhancing their productivity.(Irrigation based on water / fertilizer production function curves.)

c) Land and water management practices: These include integrated practices such as soil-water conservation, adequate land preparation for crop establishment, rainwater harvesting, efficient recycling of agricultural wastewater, conservation tillage to increase water infiltration, reduce run off and improve soil moisture storage.

d) Laser leveling: This technique removes unevenness of the soil surface, having significant impact on the germination, stand and yield of crops. It can save around 20-30 per cent of water and enhance outputs by at minimum 10 per cent.

e) System of Rice Intensification (SRI):SRI is well known for reducing water requirement by around 29 per cent and the growth duration by 8-12 days and increasing the yield by about ¾ tons/Ha resulting in increased water productivity of rice. This technology is also useful for sugarcane cultivation.

f) Extension activities:Training farmers and extension officers in water management and Conducting seminars/workshops in villages to bring awareness among all farmers for safe water and to increase yield.Extension offices in water management should be created in the block level as in the case of agronomy, plant protections, etc.

Industry

Companies are eager to reduce their water footprint, get certified for their water responsive behavior and products.

Some of the options before the industry are given below.

a) Increasing water efficiency- Some of the methods that can reduce water footprint include, change in technology from water cooling to air cooling, replacing of water intensive equipment and fixtures, waste water recycling and reuse into industrial process, and rainwater harvesting and its use.

b) Life cycle analysis:Life cycle analysis can help to assess the environmental impact associated with the various stages of a product’s life right from the cradle to the grave (from raw material extraction through materials processing, manufacture, distribution, use, repair and maintenance and disposal).

For obtaining Cradle to cradle (C2C) certification, there is a need to meet special criteria for water. Water Stewardship as a part of the Cradle to Cradle certification requires actions that not only improve the water footprint in industrial processes and supply chain, but also in the ecosystem where the industry is operating. There are five levels – Basic, Bronze, Silver, Gold and Platinum, with industries meeting better water standards at each level.

c) Supply chain water management and taking responsibility- For instance, H&M in partnership with WWF has established pillars of water management which include: developing training materials that would inform the design and sourcing team about water related impacts of producing fashion and raw materials respectively; identifying possibilities of saving water at company owned facilities; working with stakeholders such as local and regional Governments, NGOs and other companies for better water management of river basins in China and Bangladesh; and, educating customers on the significance of water management.

d) Water offset- For situations where water consumption cannot be reduced through efficiency improvements, water reuse or recycling, ‘water offsets’ investments to watersheds are adopted. Adoption of water offset would typically involve planting trees or investing in efficiency measures in far off lands.

Cross country community efforts

In drought hit Bundlekhand, Parmarth, a civil society organisation is supporting resilience amongst the drought affected families through development of more than 100 drought risk reduction plans, rainwater conservation and establishing community and institutional linkages. Jal Sahelis (friends of water) are managing in-village water supply and water conservation efforts.

Under Andhra Pradesh Farmer Managed Groundwater Systems(APFAMGS) project implemented in 7 drought prone districts of AP, farmers are managing their groundwater systems and have adopted suitable agricultural options.

In 2002, drought hit Raj Samadhiyala village in Gujarat, managed to take up three crops a year using the rainwater harvested through the construction of farm ponds, percolation tanks, check dams and sub-surface structures.

Drought prone Laporiya village in Rajasthan has a unique dyke system called the ‘chauka’ to capture rainwater, improving water availability for drinking and harvest.

The available water is sufficient even if the population of the world is increased to 25 billion (i.e 3 to 4 times of the present population). In India, the total available water is sufficient for a population of 1650 million (1500m3 / per capita/ year)

1. SURFACE WATER- The entire country has been divided into 20 basins; comprising of 12 major basins having a catchment area of 20,000 km2 and the remaining 8 basins are medium and small. According to Central Water Commission, the utilizable water resources in all the 20 basins is 69 Million hectare meter (MHM or Mha) which is about 35 per cent of the total surface water. This water will meet irrigation needs for a cropped area of 76 MHa.

2. GROUND WATER- The utilizable ground water had been assessed as 39.56 MHM (7 MHM for domestic and industrial uses and 32.56 MHM for irrigation) which can irrigate about 64 MHa. The total irrigation is about 140 M.Ha (SW=76 M.Ha, & G.W = 64 MHa).

• There are about 45000 large dams in the world, of which, 46 per cent are in China, 14 per cent are in USA and only 9 per cent in India.

• If the entire surface water and ground water available in the country is taken into account i.e. 238.50 MHM for the physical population of 1650 million in 2050, the per capita availability of water per year comes to 1450 M3 which is less than 1700 and this indicates water shortage-the country will face water stress condition according to World bank / U.N norms.

• If the utilizable water alone is taken into consideration (108.60 MHM) for the projected population of 1650 million in 2050, per capita water is 680 M3 which is less than 1000m3/P/Y which indicates that the country will face severe water scarcity and severe constraint on food production and economic development.

• GCMs represent the climate using a 3-dimensional grid over the earth, which typically has horizontal resolution between 250 and 600 km, 10 to 20 vertical layers in the atmosphere and about 30 layers in the oceans. Their resolution is thus, quite coarse relative to the scale at which data are required in most impact assessments.

• In climate change studies, the time scales could vary from a short time interval of 5 minutes (for urban water cycle) to a year. Likewise, the spatial resolutions could vary from a few square kilometers (for urban watersheds) to several thousand square kilometers (for large river basins).

• Instead, their properties are averaged over the larger scale by way of parameterization. Different GCMs may simulate quite different responses to the same input forcing depending on the way certain processes and feedbacks are modelled. For example, some models are able to closely simulate the Indian summer monsoon rainfall but many models cannot.

• Results of GCM simulations are available as time series of climatic variables. For example, hydrologists may be interested in the time series of temperature at a location for the period 2025-2075.

To identify the likely impacts of Climate Change on water resources, the following methodology can be followed:

• Select the GCM that closely simulates the climatic variables for the region of interest.

• Downscale (see below) the relevant GCM variables as per the requirement of the chosen hydrologic model.

• Use the hydrologic model to simulate the response of the catchment under future climatic conditions.

• Outputs from the hydrological models serve as inputs to water management models that can be employed for river planning, updating reservoir operation policy, etc.

• Anticipatory or proactive adaptation takes place before impacts of climate change are observed.

• Adaptation that is not in response to climatic inputs but is triggered by changes in natural systems and by market or welfare changes in human systems is called as autonomous or spontaneous adaptation.

IPCC defines mitigation as: “An anthropogenic intervention to reduce the sources or enhance the sinks of greenhouse gases (GHG).” Related to CC, mitigation is any action taken to permanently eliminate or reduce the long-term risk and hazards of climate change to human life and property.

The potential to adjust to minimize negative impact and maximize any benefits from changes in climate is known as adaptive capacity.

Economic diversification within sectors to reduce dependence on climate-sensitive resources, particularly for countries that depend on limited and climate-sensitive economic activities, such as the export of climate-sensitive crops, is an important adaptation strategy Impact of Climate Change on Indian Water Resources The importance of Himalayan river systems can be gauged from the fact that these three river systems contribute more than 60 per cent to the total annual runoff from all the rivers of India.

Actions needed:

1. Improve hydro-meteorological network for better monitoring.

2. Update basin wise water availability in the current situation.

3. Determining extent of current climatic/hydro-meteorological variability and future projections in variability due to climate change including the impact on rainfall frequency and intensity.

4. Generate reliable downscaling of GCM projections to regional and basin level.

5. Assess impact of CC on surface and ground water availability and their interaction (with specific emphasis on coastal areas).

6. Assess impact of CC on Land-Use/ Land-Cover and their coupled impact on water resources.

7. Assess impact of CC on rainfall Intensity-Duration-Frequency relationships in urban areas.

8. Assess impact on magnitude duration- frequency of drought (agricultural, meteorological and hydrological).

9. Assess impact on sediment loads and management implications.

10. Review hydrological planning design, and operating standards inview of changed scenario.

11. To cope up with enhanced scarcity and variability in the water sector, develop adequate infrastructure.

12. Develop databases and tool-boxes and practice Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM)

Case studies

1) In the cases of villages of Plachimada in Kerala, Raja Talab in UP and Kala dera in Rajasthan, ground water mining of millions of litres per day by some multi-nationals has created a water famine. Apart from the water scarcity caused in Plachimada, the other districts in the state are also facing the water crisis. For instance, in Kottayam district at some places, the water scarcity is so acute that people hesitate to offer a glass of water to the visitor, which hitherto was a common custom.

2) In the town of Latur in Marathwada, water scarcity is so severe that the district collector has imposed Section 144 of the CrPC (making assembly of more than 10 people unlawful) for two months to prevent law and order problems arising from the water crisis. The administration has taken over 150 wells and tubewells near the city because the dam that supplied water to Latur’s population of 4.5 lakh and adjoining rural areas dried up in March 2016.

3) In Bundelkhand, women have no work but to collect drinking water on their heads from long distance. The grim situation of water may be best illustrated by one Bundelkhandi saying which roughly translated as “let the husband die but the earthen pot of water should not be broken”.

Faulty policy of government

a) Research showed that the drought of 1972 was used by the World Bank to promote sugarcane cultivation, requiring intensive irrigation based on water mining through tubewells and borewells, just as the drought of 1965 was used to force the Green Revolution on India.

b) Marathwada lies in the rain shadow of the Western Ghats and receives an average of 600-700 mm of rainfall. Given the hard rock bed of the Deccan Trap, only 10 per cent of this water goes into the ground to recharge wells. Sugarcane requires 1,200 mm of water, which is 20 times more than the annual recharge. When 20 times more water is withdrawn from the ground than available, a water famine is inevitable, even when the rainfall is normal.

c) More than 300,000 farmers have committed suicide in India since 1995 — most of them in the Bt cotton areas. Marathwada and Vidarbha account for 75 per cent of farmer suicides

d) The menace of Bt cotton- in Maharashtra. In 2001-2002, before Bt cotton was commercially approved, the area under cotton in Marathwada was 0.89 lakh hectares which has increased by 23 times to become 18.386 lakh ha by 2005-06.

• Bt cotton hybrids are not suited to regions like Vidarbha and Marathwada. They need more water and, therefore, fail more frequently when assured irrigation is not available.

• Bt cotton is also killing beneficial soil organisms which degrades organic matter and turns it into humus. Soils are becoming sterile. Our studies show that more than 50 per cent beneficial soil organisms have been destroyed by Bt toxins in Bt cotton areas.

• The increase in Bt cotton came at the cost of jowar which holds the answer to drought in Maharashtra. Jowar requires only 250 mm water and would have survived the drought, giving farmers food and livelihood security even with a deficient monsoon. Between 2004-05 and 2011-12, while Bt cotton in Beed (in Marathwada) increased from 1.01 to 3.290 lakh ha, the area under “rabi jowar” decreased from 2.567 to 1.704 lakh ha.

• Bt cotton has displaced the mixed and rotational cropping of jowar, tur, mung, urad, wheat and chana. During the 1984 drought in northern Karnataka, an old farmer told us, “Bring me the old seeds of the native jowar, and I will drive away the drought”. Not only do indigenous crops like jowar use less water, they increase the water-holding capacity of soil by producing large quantities of organic matter which, when returned to the soil, increases the soil’s fertility and water-holding capacity.

• Native seeds and organic farming are the answer to drought and climate change, to farmers’ suicides and to the agrarian distress. They are also the answer to hunger and malnutrition.

Giant water projects, in most cases, benefits the powerful and dispossess the weak. Even when such projects are publicly funded, their beneficiaries are mainly construction companies, industries, and commercial farmers. Increasingly, the term “Water Providers” is being used not for the women who work to provide water, but for the water giants who take water from communities and sell it back to them at high cost for profit. The water traders, water profiteers are positioning themselves as “water providers” while increasing women’s burden in water provisioning. To mitigate the women-water burden the study suggests the following measures.

2. Introduce rainwater harvesting.

3. Change the cropping pattern of agriculture. Instead of growing water intensive crops like Green revolution paddy and sugarcane, introduce crops like millet, ragi, which consume less water.

4. In cities, instead of Public Private Partnership (Privatisation of water) Public-Public partnership (Public and Government) is an alternative for water crisis.

5. Proper water conservation measures should be used. People should be made aware and trained on the techniques of water conservation.

6. Government schemes should be implemented properly.

7. Involve panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) and NGOs in the management of rural water supply.

8. Women should have community control over water so that they can manage water as a common resource for the sustainability of the eco-system, their families and villages. They should be trained as water managers for the better utilization of water.

9. Future programmes/projects should be designed, keeping in view the women as water users.

More than any other resource, water needs to remain a common good and requires community management. In fact in most societies, private ownership of water has been prohibited. However, the emergence of modern water extraction technologies has increased the role of the state in water management. With globalization and privatization of water resources, efforts are under way to erode people’s rights over water.

Throughout history and across the world, water rights have been shaped both by the limits of ecosystems and by the needs of people. In fact, the  root of the Urdu word abadi, or human settlement, is ab, or water, reflecting the formation of human settlements and civilization along water sources. The doctrine of riparian rights – the natural rights of dwellers supported by a water system, especially a river system, to use water-also arose

from this concept of ab. Water has traditionally been treated as a natural right – arising out of human nature, historic conditions, basic needs, or notions of justice. Water rights as natural rights do not originate with the state; they evolve out of a given ecological context of human  existence

Case studies

1) In the cases of villages of Plachimada in Kerala, Raja Talab in UP and Kala dera in Rajasthan, ground water mining of millions of litres per day by some multi-nationals has created a water famine. Apart from the water scarcity caused in Plachimada, the other districts in the state are also facing the water crisis. For instance, in Kottayam district at some places, the water scarcity is so acute that people hesitate to offer a glass of water to the visitor, which hitherto was a common custom.

2) In the town of Latur in Marathwada, water scarcity is so severe that the district collector has imposed Section 144 of the CrPC (making assembly of more than 10 people unlawful) for two months to prevent law and order problems arising from the water crisis. The administration has taken over 150 wells and tubewells near the city because the dam that supplied water to Latur’s population of 4.5 lakh and adjoining rural areas dried up in March 2016.

3) In Bundelkhand, women have no work but to collect drinking water on their heads from long distance. The grim situation of water may be best illustrated by one Bundelkhandi saying which roughly translated as “let the husband die but the earthen pot of water should not be broken”.

Faulty policy of government

a) Research showed that the drought of 1972 was used by the World Bank to promote sugarcane cultivation, requiring intensive irrigation based on water mining through tubewells and borewells, just as the drought of 1965 was used to force the Green Revolution on India.

b) Marathwada lies in the rain shadow of the Western Ghats and receives an average of 600-700 mm of rainfall. Given the hard rock bed of the Deccan Trap, only 10 per cent of this water goes into the ground to recharge wells. Sugarcane requires 1,200 mm of water, which is 20 times more than the annual recharge. When 20 times more water is withdrawn from the ground than available, a water famine is inevitable, even when the rainfall is normal.

c) More than 300,000 farmers have committed suicide in India since 1995 — most of them in the Bt cotton areas. Marathwada and Vidarbha account for 75 per cent of farmer suicides

d) The menace of Bt cotton- in Maharashtra. In 2001-2002, before Bt cotton was commercially approved, the area under cotton in Marathwada was 0.89 lakh hectares which has increased by 23 times to become 18.386 lakh ha by 2005-06.

• Bt cotton hybrids are not suited to regions like Vidarbha and Marathwada. They need more water and, therefore, fail more frequently when assured irrigation is not available.

• Bt cotton is also killing beneficial soil organisms which degrades organic matter and turns it into humus. Soils are becoming sterile. Our studies show that more than 50 per cent beneficial soil organisms have been destroyed by Bt toxins in Bt cotton areas.

• The increase in Bt cotton came at the cost of jowar which holds the answer to drought in Maharashtra. Jowar requires only 250 mm water and would have survived the drought, giving farmers food and livelihood security even with a deficient monsoon. Between 2004-05 and 2011-12, while Bt cotton in Beed (in Marathwada) increased from 1.01 to 3.290 lakh ha, the area under “rabi jowar” decreased from 2.567 to 1.704 lakh ha.

• Bt cotton has displaced the mixed and rotational cropping of jowar, tur, mung, urad, wheat and chana. During the 1984 drought in northern Karnataka, an old farmer told us, “Bring me the old seeds of the native jowar, and I will drive away the drought”. Not only do indigenous crops like jowar use less water, they increase the water-holding capacity of soil by producing large quantities of organic matter which, when returned to the soil, increases the soil’s fertility and water-holding capacity.

• Native seeds and organic farming are the answer to drought and climate change, to farmers’ suicides and to the agrarian distress. They are also the answer to hunger and malnutrition.

Giant water projects, in most cases, benefits the powerful and dispossess the weak. Even when such projects are publicly funded, their beneficiaries are mainly construction companies, industries, and commercial farmers. Increasingly, the term “Water Providers” is being used not for the women who work to provide water, but for the water giants who take water from communities and sell it back to them at high cost for profit. The water traders, water profiteers are positioning themselves as “water providers” while increasing women’s burden in water provisioning. To mitigate the women-water burden the study suggests the following measures.